Grégoire, L., Dubravac, M., Moore, K., Kim, N., & Anderson, B. A.

Abstract

Attentional bias to threat has been almost exclusively examined after participants experienced repeated pairings between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US). This study aimed to determine whether threat-related attentional capture can result from observational learning, when participants acquire knowledge of the aversive qualities of a stimulus without themselves experiencing aversive outcomes. Non-clinical young-adult participants (N = 38) first watched a video of an individual (the demonstrator) performing a Pavlovian conditioning task in which one colour was paired with shock (CS+) and another colour was neutral (CS−). They then carried out visual search for a shape-defined target. Oculomotor measures evidenced an attentional bias toward the CS+ colour, suggesting that threat-related attentional capture can ensue from observational learning. Exploratory analyses also revealed that this effect was positively correlated with empathy for the demonstrator. Our findings extend empirical and theoretical knowledge about threat-driven attention and provide valuable insights to better understand the formation of anxiety disorders.

Go to Article

Dubravac, M., Garrison, K. E., & Schmeichel, B. J.

Abstract

It is not always easy to attend to task-relevant information and ignore task-irrelevant distractions. We investigated the impact of task switching and emotional stimuli on goal-oriented selective attention and subsequent recognition memory. Results from two experiments with different stimulus materials (words and images) found that the memory advantage of task-relevant information over task-irrelevant information (i.e. memory selectivity) was attenuated on task switch trials and emotional distractor trials. In contrast, task repetitions and emotional targets improved memory selectivity. These results suggest that both task switching and emotional distractors divert limited cognitive resources needed for selective attention and selective encoding. Emotional targets likely supported selective encoding through the process of attentional prioritisation of emotional stimuli. The effects of task switching and emotional stimuli did not interact, suggesting distinct mechanisms, although this conclusion remains tentative.

Go to Article

Astle, M. C., Dubravac, M., & Schmeichel, B. J.

Abstract

Claiming knowledge about something that does not exist may reflect self-enhancement motives. Is trait self-control related to overclaiming? We considered two possibilities. One possibility was that trait self-control relates positively to overclaiming, perhaps due to social desirability or self-enhancing motivations to report high self-control. The other possibility was that abstaining from self-enhancement requires a degree of inhibition or self-control, resulting in a negative relationship between trait self-control and overclaiming. We tested the correlation between trait self-control and responses on the Over-Claiming Questionnaire (OCQ) in a large sample of college students (N = 566). The OCQ measures familiarity with real and fake information and yields indices of accuracy (knowledge) and bias (overclaiming). Trait self-control related negatively to OCQ accuracy and positively to OCQ bias. People with higher trait self-control tended to claim knowledge about nonexistent concepts, which suggests that responses to the Trait Self-Control Scale capture an element of self-enhancement tendencies.

Go to Article

Muhmenthaler, M. C., Dubravac, M., & Meier, B.

Abstract

In order to cope with cognitive conflicts, attention and knowledge are required. In some conditions, cognitive conflicts can boost subsequent memory and in other conditions, they can attenuate subsequent memory. The goal of the present study is to provide a narrative review of studies from the last decade in which Stroop or flanker conflicts, task switching, perceptual disfluency or semantic incongruence were manipulated at study. We propose an integrative framework considering attentional mechanisms and knowledge structures. Attentional mechanisms can refer to conflict resolution, which is required to explain the memory benefit for incongruent stimuli in Stroop and Flanker paradigms. Attentional mechanisms can also refer to attention allocation, which is required to explain the memory cost for targets and the memory benefit for task-irrelevant distractors in task-switching paradigms. Moreover, attention allocation policies can also account for the inconsistent results for perceptual disfluency manipulations. Prior knowledge is required to explain effects of semantic congruency and incongruency: Information that is expected, or congruent with prior knowledge, is better remembered, namely by pre-existing schemata. Moreover, information that is unexpected or incongruent with prior knowledge attracts attention and is better remembered. The impact of prior knowledge on memory performance thus results in a U-shape function. We integrate the findings according to this framework and suggest directions for future research.

Go to Article

Dubravac, M. & Meier, B.

Abstract

Although humans gain considerable knowledge from young to older adulthood, aging is also associated with cognitive deficits. This study investigated age-related changes in dynamic cognitive control adjustments after cognitive conflicts and errors. Specifically, we compared younger and older adults’ time courses of two established phenomena – post-conflict slowing and post-error slowing. Both age groups completed modified versions of three widely used cognitive conflict tasks (Stroop, Simon, and flanker task). In these tasks, occasional incongruent information triggered a conflict that had to be resolved accordingly but sometimes elicited errors. We tracked conflict- and error-related slowing across four trials after a correct conflict trial (i.e., post-conflict slowing) and an incorrect conflict trial (i.e., post-error slowing). Post-error slowing was generally stronger than post-conflict slowing. Older adults showed a disproportionally strong slowing on the first post-error trial compared to younger adults. In contrast, on subsequent trials, older adults showed a relatively stronger speed up. This pattern of results was consistent across all three tasks. The greater cross-trial response time changes in older adults suggests a deficit in fine-tuning cognitive control adjustments.

Go to Article

Dubravac, M. & Meier, B.

Abstract

People remember more task-relevant information than task-irrelevant information, and this difference can be conceptualised as memory selectivity. Selectively attending and remembering relevant information is a key ability for goal-directed behaviour and is thus critical for leading an autonomous life. In the present study, we tested the influence of cognitive load on memory selectivity. Specifically, we investigated the effects of task switching, stimulus presentation duration, and preparation time during incidental learning in five experiments (N = 351). For the study phase, we used two established task switching paradigms (cued and alternating runs). Participants were presented with picture–word pairs on which they performed one of two classification tasks. Depending on the task, participants had to attend to the picture or to the word. In a subsequent surprise recognition test, we assessed how well they remembered the targets and distractors. After 1 day or 1 week, a second recognition test assessed the longevity of the effects. Results showed that task switches (vs task repetitions), short (vs until response) stimulus duration, and short (vs long) preparation time reduced memory selectivity. The effect of preparation time was significant only in cued task switching but not in the alternating runs paradigm, highlighting the importance of advance cues for preparation effects on memory. With longer retention intervals, the effects washed out. In conclusion, higher cognitive load leads to lower selective attention and, consequently, to lower memory selectivity. The present study provides links between theories of attention, cognitive control, and memory.

Go to Article

Muhmenthaler, M. C., Dubravac, M., & Meier, B.

Abstract

Precognition describes the ability to anticipate information about a future event before this event occurs. The goal of our study was to test the occurrence of precognition by trying to replicate three experiments of the most central study in the field (Bem, 2011, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology). In this study, Bem time-reversed well-established psychological effects so that a “causal” stimulus appeared after the participants gave their response. We conducted two priming experiments and a free recall experiment in the backward “precognition” version and, as a control manipulation, in the classic forward version. More than 2000 participants participated via the Internet; thus, our study had high statistical power. The results showed no precognition effects at all. We further conducted exploratory post hoc analyses on different variables and questionnaire items and found some significant effects. Further studies should validate these potentially interesting findings by using theory-driven hypotheses, preregistrations, and confirmatory data analyses.

Go to Article

Dubravac, M., Roebers, C. M., & Meier, B.

Abstract

Detecting an error signals the need for increased cognitive control and behavioural adjustments. Considerable development in performance monitoring and cognitive control is evidenced by lower error rates and faster response times in multi-trial executive function tasks with age. Besides these quantitative changes, we were interested in whether qualitative changes in balancing accuracy and speed contribute to developmental progression during elementary school years. We conducted two studies investigating the temporal and developmental trajectories of post-error slowing in three prominent cognitive conflict tasks (Stroop, Simon, and flanker). We instructed children (8-, 10-, and 12-year-old) and adults to respond as fast and as accurately as possible and measured their response times on four trials after correct and incorrect responses to a cognitive conflict. Results revealed that all age groups had longer response times on post-error versus post-correct trials, reflecting post-error slowing. Critically, slowing on the first post-error trial declined with age, suggesting an age-related reduction in the orienting response towards errors. This age effect diminished on subsequent trials, suggesting more fine-tuned cognitive control adjustments with age. Overall, the consistent pattern across tasks suggests an age-related change from a relatively strong orienting response to more balanced cognitive control adaptations.

Go to Article

Dubravac, M.

Abstract

Adjusting information processing flexibly to changing task demands and detecting self-generated errors are prerequisites for goal-directed behavior and critical abilities for living an autonomous life. This dissertation presents empirical work on the effects of cognitive conflicts and errors on subsequent task performance and episodic memory. Two studies investigated the temporal and developmental trajectories of performance slowing after detecting cognitive conflicts and errors. Conflicts and errors were experimentally induced by occasional incongruent trials requiring the inhibition of a prepotent response tendency leading to increased error rates and slower responses. The findings revealed reduced variability of response times from eight years to adulthood. More specifically, conflict and error related slowing decreased with age, suggesting more fine-tuned cognitive control adjustments with development. Two other studies showed that cognitive conflicts also affect long-term memory in adults. The underlying cognitive mechanisms are discussed in terms of interacting processes loading cognitive control needed for selective encoding. Avenues for future research examining memory consequences of conflicts in children are outlined. Investigating age-related qualitative changes in the functional connection between cognitive control and encoding processes could further our understanding of the driving forces for developmental progression.

Go to Article

Dubravac, M. & Meier, B.

Abstract

Selective attention is relevant for goal directed behavior as it allows people to attend to task-relevant target stimuli and to ignore task-irrelevant distractors. Attentional focus at encoding affects subsequent memory for target and distractor stimuli. Remembering selectively more targets than distractors represents memory selectivity. Brain imaging studies suggest that the superior parietal cortex is associated with the dorsal attentional network supporting top-down control of selective attention while the inferior parietal cortex is associated with the ventral attentional network supporting bottom-up attentional orienting. To investigate the roles of the dorsal and ventral networks in the effect of selective attention during encoding on long-term memory, we stimulated the left superior and the right inferior parietal cortex. Building on previous work, we applied transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) during a study phase where pictures and words were presented simultaneously and participants had to switch between a picture and a word decision. A subsequent recognition test assessed memory for target and distractor pictures and words. We hypothesized that a relative increase in activity in the dorsal network would boost selective attention while increased activity in the ventral network would impair selective attention. We also expected to find corresponding effects on memory. Enhanced selective attention should lead to higher memory selectivity, while impaired selective attention should lead to lower memory selectivity. Our results replicated that task switching reduced memory selectivity. However, we found no significant effects of tDCS. Thus, the present study questions the effectiveness of the present tDCS protocol for modulating attention during task switching and subsequent memory.

Go to Article

Dubravac, M., Roebers, C. M., & Meier, B.

Abstract

After perceiving cognitive conflicts or errors, children as well as adults adjust their performance in terms of reaction time slowing on subsequent actions, resulting in the so called post-conflict slowing and post-error slowing, respectively. The development of these phenomena has been studied separately and with different methods yielding inconsistent findings. We aimed to assess the temporal dynamics of these two slowing phenomena within a single behavioral task. To do so, 9-13-year-old children and young adults performed a Simon task in which every fifth trial was incongruent and thus induced cognitive conflict and, frequently, also errors. We compared the reaction times on four trials following a conflict or an error. Both age groups slowed down after conflicts and did so even more strongly after errors. Disproportionally high reaction times on the first post-error trial were followed by a steady flattening of the slowing. Generally, children slowed down more than adults. In addition to highlighting the phenomenal and developmental robustness of post-conflict and post-error slowing these findings strongly suggest increasingly efficient performance adjustment through fine-tuning of cognitive control in the course of development.

Go to Article